접평면과 선형근사

Denote by $S$ the surface $G(x,y,z)=0$ and by $C$ the parametrized curve $\mathbf{r}(t)=\big(x(t),y(t),z(t)\big)$. To start, we'll find the tangent plane to $S$ at $\mathbf{r}_0$ and the tangent line to $C$ at $\mathbf{r}_0$.

• The tangent vector to $C$ at $\mathbf{r}_0$ is $\left< x'(t_0)\,,\,y'(t_0)\,,\,z'(t_0) \right>$, so the parametric equations for the tangent line to $C$ at $\mathbf{r}_0$ are

$$x-x_0 = t x'(t_0)\qquad y-y_0 = t y'(t_0)\qquad z-z_0 = t z'(t_0) \tag{$E_1$}$$

• The gradient $\left<\frac{\partial G}{\partial x}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\,,\, \frac{\partial G}{\partial y}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\,,\, \frac{\partial G}{\partial z}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\right>$ is a normal vector to the surface $S$ at $(x_0,y_0,z_0)$. So the tangent plane to the surface $S$ at $(x_0,y_0,z_0)$ is

$$\left<\frac{\partial G}{\partial x}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\,,\, \frac{\partial G}{\partial y}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\,,\, \frac{\partial G}{\partial z}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\right> \cdot \left< x-x_0\,,\, y-y_0\,,\,z-z_0\right> = 0$$

or

$$\frac{\partial G}{\partial x}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\ (x-x_0) +\frac{\partial G}{\partial y}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\ (y-y_0) +\frac{\partial G}{\partial z}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\ (z-z_0) = 0 \tag{$E_2$}$$

Next, we'll show that the tangent vector $\left< x'(t_0)\,,\,y'(t_0)\,,\,z'(t_0) \right>$ to $C$ at $\mathbf{r}_0$ and the normal vector $\left<\frac{\partial G}{\partial x}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\,,\, \frac{\partial G}{\partial y}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\,,\, \frac{\partial G}{\partial z}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\right>$ to $S$ at $\mathbf{r}_0$ are perpendicular to each other. To do so, we observe that, for every $t$, the point $\big(x(t),y(t),z(t)\big)$ lies on the surface $G(x,y,z)=0$ and so obeys

$$\begin{aligned} G\big(x(t),y(t),z(t)\big) =0 \end{aligned}$$

Differentiating this equation with respect to $t$ gives, by the chain rule,

$$\begin{aligned} 0&= \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}t}G\big(x(t),y(t),z(t)\big) \\ &=\frac{\partial G}{\partial x}\big( x(t)\,,\,y(t)\,,\,z(t)\big)\ x'(t) +\frac{\partial G}{\partial y}\big( x(t)\,,\,y(t)\,,\,z(t)\big)\ y'(t) +\frac{\partial G}{\partial z}\big( x(t)\,,\,y(t)\,,\,z(t)\big)\ z'(t) \end{aligned}$$

Then setting $t=t_0$ gives

$$\frac{\partial G}{\partial x}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\ x'(t_0) +\frac{\partial G}{\partial y}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\ y'(t_0) +\frac{\partial G}{\partial z}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\ z'(t_0) = 0 \tag{$E_3$}$$

Finally, we are in a position to show that if $(x,y,z)$ is any point on the tangent line to $C$ at $\mathbf{r}_0$, then $(x,y,z)$ is also on the tangent plane to $S$ at $\mathbf{r}_0$. As $(x,y,z)$ is on the tangent line to $C$ at $\mathbf{r}_0$ then there is a $t$ such that, by $(E_1)$,

$$\begin{aligned} &\frac{\partial G}{\partial x}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\ \{x-x_0\} +\frac{\partial G}{\partial y}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\ \{y-y_0\} +\frac{\partial G}{\partial z}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\ \{z-z_0\} \\ &=\frac{\partial G}{\partial x}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\ \big\{ t\,x'(t_0)\big\} +\frac{\partial G}{\partial y}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\ \big\{ t\,y'(t_0)\big\} +\frac{\partial G}{\partial z}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\ \big\{ t\,z'(t_0)\big\}\\ &= t\left[\frac{\partial G}{\partial x}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\ x'(t_0) +\frac{\partial G}{\partial y}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\ y'(t_0) +\frac{\partial G}{\partial z}\big( x_0\,,\,y_0\,,\,z_0\big)\ z'(t_0) \right] =0 \end{aligned}$$

by $(E_3)$. That is, $(x,y,z)$ obeys the equation, $(E_2)$, of the tangent plane to $S$ at $\mathbf{r}_0$ and so is on that tangent plane. So the tangent line to $C$ at $\mathbf{r}_0$ is contained in the tangent plane to $S$ at $\mathbf{r}_0$.